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Following each manual coding, the method estimates the code distribution respecting a certainty interval and assumes a homogeneous distribution if certainty exceeds a predefined threshold. Cluster homogeneity is assessed by strategically querying informative responses and presenting them to a human rater. Assuming that similar codes represent semantically similar responses, we propagate codes to responses in optimally homogeneous clusters.
We map normalized response texts into a semantic space and cluster response vectors based on their semantic similarity. Our semi‐supervised coding method eco (exploring coding assistant) dynamically supports human raters by automatically coding a subset of the responses. In the context of large‐scale educational assessments, the effort required to code open‐ended text responses is considerably more expensive and time‐consuming than the evaluation of multiple‐choice responses because it requires trained personnel and long manual coding sessions. Beyond the analyses reported here, our work paves the way to measure the degree of optimality of the vocalizations or gestures of other species, and to compare them against written, spoken, or signed human languages. In general, spoken word durations are more optimized than written word lengths in characters. This indicates that languages are optimized to 62 or 67 percent on average (depending on the source) when word lengths are measured in characters, and to 65 percent on average when word lengths are measured in time. Harnessing the best score, we quantify for the first time the degree of optimality of word lengths in languages. We analyze the theoretical and statistical advantages and disadvantages of these and other scores. Moreover, to measure the degree of optimization, we derive a simple formula for a random baseline and present two scores that are dualy normalized, namely, they are normalized with respect to both the minimum and the random baseline. It is detectable for both word lengths in characters of written language as well as durations in time in spoken language. Here we demonstrate that compression manifests itself in a wide sample of languages without exceptions, and independently of the unit of measurement. Although the claim that languages are optimized has become trendy, attempts to measure the degree of optimization of languages have been rather scarce. the minimization of the length of forms - a universal principle of natural communication.
Since Zipf's pioneering research, this law has been viewed as a manifestation of compression, i.e. One of the most robust patterns found in human languages is Zipf's law of abbreviation, that is, the tendency of more frequent words to be shorter. Recognizing the true extent of structural diversity in human language opens up exciting new research directions for cognitive scientists, offering thousands of different natural experiments given by different languages, with new opportunities for dialogue with biological paradigms concerned with change and diversity, and confronting us with the extraordinary plasticity of the highest human skills. Linguistic diversity then becomes the crucial datum for cognitive science: we are the only species with a communication system that is fundamentally variable at all levels. Although there are significant recurrent patterns in organization, these are better explained as stable engineering solutions satisfying multiple design constraints, reflecting both cultural-historical factors and the constraints of human cognition. After surveying the various uses of “universal,” we illustrate the ways languages vary radically in sound, meaning, and syntactic organization, and then we examine in more detail the core grammatical machinery of recursion, constituency, and grammatical relations. This target article summarizes decades of cross-linguistic work by typologists and descriptive linguists, showing just how few and unprofound the universal characteristics of language are, once we honestly confront the diversity offered to us by the world's 6,000 to 8,000 languages. This fundamentally changes the object of enquiry from a cognitive science perspective. Instead, diversity can be found at almost every level of linguistic organization. In fact, there are vanishingly few universals of language in the direct sense that all languages exhibit them. Talk of linguistic universals has given cognitive scientists the impression that languages are all built to a common pattern.
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